A Tale of Two Plants in Ethiopia

Editor's Note: If you are regular follower of this blog, most probably you are familiar with occasional blog entries from distinguished guests. One of such guests is Dr. Fekadu Fullas who is kind enough to share with us his articles on medicinal use of plants, herbs and spices in Ethiopia. Dr. Fekadu is an accomplished scientist who had studied & researched compounds from natural products for medicinal purposes. He had published his scientific research in various reputed Chemistry, Pharmacology & Medical journals. One of the greatest quality of Dr. Fekadu is his ability to translate scientific findings into simple language whether it is in English or Amharic that can be understood by regular folks. With such audience in mind, he had written books in English and Amharic which can be ordered from Ethioheritagestore. It is with great honor that we bring you today his latest article on two plants known in Ethiopia as Etse Faris or Astenagir. Enjoy!

A Tale of Two Plants in Ethiopia: Datura stramonium L. (Astenagir; Etse Faris) and Cannabis sativa L. (Etse Fars, Hashish)

By: Fekadu Fullas (RPh, PhD)

A while back, there were a couple of write-ups (http://ethiomedia.com/adroit/mariwana.pdf and http://ethiomedia.com/adroit/etse_faris.pdf) on what “mariwana” and “etse faris” represent and their uses in Ethiopia. In these write-ups, some ambiguities were evident. The current review will attempt to clarify issues associated with these plants. Verdcourt and Trump (1) include Datura stramonium and Cannabis sativa in their long list of common poisonous plants of East Africa. In addition to their traditional medicinal uses in various countries, both plants are also known for their mind-altering effects. They grow in Ethiopia, and are used for therapeutic and mind-altering purposes, as well. This article will shed some light on the nomenclature, uses and other important aspects of these plants, with a focus on their status in Ethiopia.

Amharic/Ge’ez nomenclature:

Although C. sativa (family: Cannabaceae) and D. stramonium (family: Solanaceae) are two different plants found in unrelated botanical families, various Amarigna/Ge’ez names have been used interchangeably to refer to them, especially in the older literature. Strelcyn mentions the Ge’ez/Amarigna names ate faris, ate fari, etse farrs, absho and abusho under the botanical names Datura stramonium, D. fastuosa and D. metel var metel Yet, without adequate botanical differentiation, he seems to draw some distinctions between them (2).  Gelahun Abate uses the Ge’ez name este faris for Cannabis sativa, and goes on to mention the same name for D. stramonium (astenagir). He alludes to three types of este Faris (3). On the other hand, Amare Getahun uses the most common and well-known name hashish for C. sativa and ate faris and astenagir for D. stramonium (4). Tournerie claims that among the clergy, D. stramonium is referred to as etse Fars (plant from Persia), and that the name was later corrupted to attefaris in Amarigna. She further notes that the name astenagir may refer to a different Datura species, or to the ripeness of the seed. The name “abisho” has been applied to both C. sativa and D. stramonium. More generically, it may also refer to a multi-component concoction. The name netch abisho has been applied to the unripe D. stramonium seeds. A mention of the plant names etse Fars and etse Faris in the literature without context does not convey either C. sativa (hashish, marijuana) or D. stramonium [astenagir] (5).

D. stramonium (astenagir)

 D. stramonium is known by various English common names: Angel Tulip, Apple of Peru, Devil’s trumpet, Green thorn-apple, Jamestown weed, Jimson weed, Nightshade, etc. It is a cosmopolitan weed and grows wild in most parts of Africa. It is found commonly around village homes and on abandoned farmlands. It is an herbaceous plant that can grow up to 1 meter high, with many branches and a dense appearance. It produces fruits that enclose black, flat and kidney-shaped seeds (6). The plant is a potent intoxicant. The seedlings have been accidentally mixed with vegetables and caused catastrophic poisoning. The plant has also been used deliberately for poisoning (1). In olden times, deliberate poisoning with plants was more common. For example, Aggripina is said to have poisoned her husband, the Roman Emperor Claudius, to death with poisonous mushrooms when she learned that he was about to name a different successor to the throne rather than her son, Nero (7).

The toxic principles that make D. stramonium so dangerous are the so-called tropane alkaloids hyosciamine, hyoscine (scopolamine) and atropine. The seeds are richer in these alkaloids than the other parts of the plant. Drying the plant doesn’t reduce the levels, nor eliminate the toxicity of these chemicals (1). Lethal doses lead to death from asphyxiation (lack of oxygen). The early tell-tale symptoms of poisoning are: reddening of the skin, dryness of the mouth, pronounced dilation of the pupils in the eyes and erratic increase in heart rate (8). In traditional medicine, extracts of the leaves are incorporated into remedies for cough and chest problems. The leaves and seeds are also used for inflammation to reduce pain. The seeds have been used as an insecticide, while the leaves are crushed and smoked as cigarettes, or burned to smoke which is inhaled for asthma (6). In East Africa, the juice from fruit has been used for aching ear, while the leaves have been used as poultices for rheumatism and swellings (9). Drinking tea prepared from the seeds can lead to hallucination. It is of interest to note that the constituents of D. stramonium plant have a place in modern medicine. For example, atropine is used, among other indications, to increase heart rate, to dilate the pupils of the eyes, to decrease secretions in the mouth (saliva, mucus phlegm) and for irritable bowel syndrome. Likewise, hyosciamine is used for a number of conditions, such as slow heart rate, bilary colic and other disorders of the digestive tract. Scopolamine, another constituent of D. stramonium, is used in modern medicine as a patch worn on the back of the ear to prevent post-operative nausea and vomiting. It is also used to prevent motion sickness.

D. stramonium (ate Faris; astenagir) is reported to occur in most Ethiopian regions. It is also found in Eritrea, the Sudan, Somalia and throughout tropical Africa. Also known as abisho (vide supra) in Ethiopia, astenagir (ate-faris) is blended into porridge and eaten by the debtera and church school students to purportedly open their mind and make them receptive. Abstinence from alcohol is recommended to avoid adverse effects. The plant is grown in gardens of many monasteries. Astenagir, as the name implies, is also used as a “truth drug” during “afersata” hearings held by elders to solve criminal activities (10). Although there no evidence for its effectiveness, it is interesting to note that scopolamine (a constituent of D. stramonium) is incorporated into what is dubbed “truth serum” which is allegedly used by law enforcement agents to elicit information. (6). In Ethiopia, it is used to treat crying eyes by applying the juice of the leaves. It is also used as an ingredient to concoct multi-herb remedies used for various complaints. It is mixed with Catha edulis (chat), C. sativa (hashish) and other ingredients and smoked to treat mental illnesses and for exorcism (11). Known by the local names mazerb (in Kunama dialect) and mezerabaie (Tigrigna), D. stramonium is used for unspecified cheek disease in northern Ethiopia. For this purpose, the dried seeds are immersed in boiling water, and the vapor directed at the affected part (12). In the Bale region, the leaves are crushed and applied to treat abscess, for extraction of thorn, and to treat infected wounds (13). Ground leaves are mixed with butter and applied to the scalp to treat infections. The vapor from boiling seed pods is inhaled for pain and toothache (4).

 If seeds are accidentally mixed with barely and ingested, it can cause intoxication, dry mouth and confusion (13). In 1984, a large outbreak of food-borne toxicity among workers of the Middle Awash Agricultural Enterprise was reported. The incident was traced back to ingestion of corn contaminated with D. stramonium seeds. As a result, 688 workers showed signs of toxicity, with 33 patients requiring hospitalization. The patients had dryness of the mucous membranes, flushed and dry skin, blurred vision, and neurological disorders. In the most severe cases, patients experienced seizures, depression and coma. (14).

C. sativa (hashish, marijuana)

The plant is known by various common names: anascaha & kif, banji, bhang, hemp, cannabis, shesha, dimba, gegga, suma, vingory, machona, bhang, sausi, charas, ganja, hashish, erar, marijuana, marihuana, pot, gaga, grass, has, mariguana, sinsemilla and weed. The name accorded to each preparation depends on which plant parts are used and how they are combined. C. sativa is an annual leafy herb. The soft-textured leaves are lance-shaped with saw blade-like indentation. The resin mixture is found in the leaflets of the floral bracts. The plant is rank-smelling and aromatic. It can grow to a height of six feet. At the sub-species level, there are two types of cannabis. C. sativa subsp. sativa (so-called low-THC hemp) is principally used as a source of fiber and seed oil, while C. sativa subsp. indica is the intoxicant variety. The cannabis plant perhaps originated in Asia, and is now cultivated in temperate zones (15). Its use dates back to 4,000 years. Although the Chinese were reported to have recognized the sedative effects of C. sativa long time ago, its widespread use as a psychoactive herb may have started only in the past century. It has been used for a variety of medical conditions, such as for the treatment of catarrh, leprosy, fever, dandruff, hemorrhoids, obesity, asthma, urinary tract infections, loss of appetite, inflammation and cough (16). Cannabis products are the most widely trafficked drug in the world, affecting all countries (17). It has a strong potential for abuse, and hence is classified as a Schedule I substance. Marijuana refers to the crude product obtained from the dried leaves and flowers of C. sativa. It is typically consumed in hand-rolled cigarettes or a water pipe, inhaled through a vaporizer, ingested in food, or applied on the skin as a balm. The effect of inhaled marijuana is relatively fast. It provides a feeling of pleasure, affects memory, thought, concentration and sensory and time perception (18). It adversely affects the heart, lungs, brain, endocrine system and the eyes. Distortion of time, distance, and visual and auditory hallucinations have been reported with the use of marijuana (16). Although illegal in the United States under federal law, several states have legalized the use of medical marijuana. These medical uses include debilitating conditions such as nausea and vomiting resulting from cancer chemotherapy, weight loss due to HIV infection and cancer, spasticity due to multiple sclerosis, pain syndrome and glaucoma (18).

More than 420 compounds have been reported from C. sativa (16). Delta-9-tetrahydrcannabinonol (THC) is the hallucinogenic constituent of marijuana. All in all, additional 60 cannabinoids are found in C. sativa (8). It also contains alkaloids, steroidal saponins, flavonoids and a complex mixture of volatile oil compounds (8,15,17). The concentration of THC varies from 0.1% to over 0.4%. It is higher in the bracts and flowers than in the stems, seeds and roots (16).

Although the Flora of Ethiopia (Volume 3) mentions that Cannabis sativa grows in Ethiopia, it doesn’t elaborate on the specific distribution in Ethiopia (19). There is no clear evidence when the plant was introduced into Ethiopia. It has been speculated that it was used around Lake Tana (Begemdir) as far back as the 13^th-14^th centuries. Two ceramic pipe bowls excavated in Lalibela Cave were carbon dated to 1320 A.D, give or take 80 years. Analysis of the residue in the pipes indicated the presence of cannabinoids (20). The main areas of cultivation are in Alemaya (Eastern Harerghe), Shebedino (Sidamo), in the Oromia Region and Debre Berhan. Shashemene is reported to be a major area for cannabis production and export to neighboring countries. Overall, it is claimed that Ethiopia is not a major area cannabis production and export (17). The majority of cannabis produced is consumed locally. According to Mesfin Kassay et al (21), C. sativa is also grown in Quara and Metema (Gondar) and Garamuleta (Harar). The main trafficking routes that were identified and reported in 1999 were: 1. Shashemene-Addis Ababa, 2. Shashemene-Dessie-Alamata-Mekele-Afar-Djibuti, 3. Dire Dawa-Djibuti (via train), 4. Qara, Metema-Sudan and 5. North Gondar-Humera-Sudan-Egypt. Although there is no current data on the extent of cannabis use in Ethiopia, reports in the past had indicated an upward trend. Historically, it was limited to monasteries, where priests and deacons used it during religious education and to keep them awake during prayers. It is speculated that the Jamaican community who settled in Shashemene may have introduced it to that area. Tourists and their guides may also have played a role in spreading cannabis plant into other parts of Ethiopia. According to police records (1993-1997), 545 of the 553 (98.6%) illicit drug arrests were related to cannabis use or trafficking. This relatively high number of cases has been attributed to the fact that cannabis grows locally, and that it can be bought at low price. According to a small survey of 47 health workers in Addis Ababa, 61.7 % of the respondents listed cannabis as a problem as compared to 10.6% for cocaine and 6.4% for opium.

C. sativa is used in Ethiopia as an intelligence booster. It is also a component of multi-herb preparations used to treat various illnesses (11). It is also used to treat epilepsy and other mental conditions (19). High and potentially toxic levels of lead and cadmium have been reported from C. sativa samples collected from Butajera, Mekelle, Metema and Shashemene (17).

Conclusions

            A nomenclatural confusion exists in the literature on the Ethiopian vernacular names for D. stramonium and C. sativa. Using the names astenagir for D. stramonium and hashish or etse fars for C. sativa consistently in future literature may avoid the confusion. In Ethiopian folk medicine, both plants are used for medicinal and recreational purposes. Consumers of these plants for medicinal/health purposes should notify their healthcare provider of such use. However, the use of both plants as recreational herbs should be discouraged, due to the toxic, addictive and other adverse health effects as demonstrated in this review.

References

1.         Verdcourt, B, Trump, EC. Common poisonous plants of East Africa. London, Great Britain: Collins-Clear Type Press; 1969, pp 96-97 & 162-166.

2.         Strelcyn, S., Médecine et plantes d/Èthiopie. Naploi: Insititto Universitario Orientale; 1973; pp 42-43

3.         Gelahun Abate (Sebsebe Demissew, ed). Etse Debdabe (Ethiopian Traditional Medicine). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Biology Department, Science Faculty, Addis Ababa University; 1989; p 182.

4.         Amare Getahun. Some common medicinal and poisonous plants used in Ethiopian folk medicine. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University; 1976.

5.         Tournerie, PI. Color and Dye Recipes of Ethiopia. 2^nd ed. London: New Cross Books; 2010; pp 35-51.

6.         Iwu, MM. Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. Boca Raton, Fl: CRC Press, Inc., 19993, pp 170-171

7.         Dawit Abebe, Kelbessa Urga, Asfaw Debela, et al. survey of poisonous plants in Southern Ethiopia. Ethiop J Health Dev. 2001: 15 (3): 209-221.

8.         Fleming T, et al (eds). PDR for Herbal Remedies. 1^st ed. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Co; 1998; pp 712-714.

9.         Kokwaro, JO. Medicinal Plants of East Africa. Nairobi, Kenya: General Printers; 1976; p 204

10.       Molvaer, RK. Socialization and Social Control in Ethiopia. Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz; 1995; pp 259-260

11.       Dawit Abebe, Ahadu Ayehu. Medicinal Plants and Enigmatic Health Practices of Northern Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: B.S.P.E; 1993; pp 77, 108.

12.       Meaza Gidey, Tadesse Beyene,  Signorini, MA, et al. Traditional medicinal plants used by the Kunama ethnic group in Northern Ethiopia. J Med Plants Res. 2015; 9(15); 494-509

13.       Bussman, RW, Swartzinsky, P, Asrat Worede, et al. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale Region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol and Ethnomed. 2011; 7: 28. doi. 10.1/68/1746-4269-7-28

14.       Assefa Aga, Aberra Geyid. An outbreak of acute toxicity caused by eating food contaminated with Datura stramonium. Ethiop J. Health Dev. 1992; 6(1): 25-31

15.       Wyk, VB-E, Wink, M. Medicinal plants of the world. Portland, OR: Timber Press, Inc.; 2004, pp 77, 123

16.       DerMarderosian A. Marijuana. The Review of Natural Products. St Louis, MO: Facts and Comparisons. July 2004

17.       Akalu Zerihun, A, Chandravanshi, BS, Ayalew Debebe, et al. Levels of selected metals in leaves of Cannabis sativa L. cultivated in Ethiopia. Springer-Plus 2015; 4:359;.doi 10.1186/s40064-015-1145-x.

18.       Seamon, MJ, Fass, JA, M-Feichtl, M, et al. Medical marijuana and the developing role of the pharmacist. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 2007; 64:1037-1044

19.       Verdcourt, B. Cannabaceae In: Flora of Ethiopia, Volume 3, Pittosporaceae to Araliaceae. Hedberg, I, Edwards, S (Eds). Addis Ababa: The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, July 1989; pp 327-328

20.       Merwe, NVD. Cannabis sativa in the 13-14^th Century Ethiopia: Chemical Evidence. http://www.drugtext.org/pdf/Cannabis-and-Culture/cannabis-smoking-in-13th-14th-century-ethiopia-chemical-evidence.pdf (accessed 2015 Oct 10).

21.       Mesfin Kassay, Hassan Taha Sherie, Ghimja Fissehaye, et al. Knowledge of “drug” use and associated factors as perceived by health professionals, farmers, the youth and law enforcement agencies in Ethiopia, Ethiop J Health Dev. 1999; 13 (2): 141-149.