Editor's Note: If you are regular follower of this blog, most probably you are familiar with occasional blog
entries from distinguished guests. One of such guests is Dr. Fekadu Fullas who is kind enough to share with us his articles on medicinal use of plants, herbs and spices in
Ethiopia. Dr. Fekadu is an accomplished scientist who had studied & researched compounds from natural products for medicinal purposes. He had published his scientific research in various reputed Chemistry, Pharmacology & Medical journals. One of the greatest quality of Dr. Fekadu is his ability to translate scientific findings into simple language whether it is in English or Amharic that can be understood by regular folks. With such audience in mind, he had written books in English and Amharic which can be ordered from Ethioheritagestore. It is with great honor that we bring you today his
latest article on two plants known in Ethiopia as Etse Faris or Astenagir. Enjoy!
A Tale of Two Plants in Ethiopia:
Datura stramonium L. (Astenagir; Etse
Faris) and Cannabis sativa L. (Etse
Fars, Hashish)
By: Fekadu Fullas (RPh, PhD)
Amharic/Ge’ez nomenclature:
Although C. sativa (family: Cannabaceae) and D. stramonium (family: Solanaceae) are
two different plants found in unrelated botanical families, various Amarigna/Ge’ez names have been used interchangeably to refer to them,
especially in the older literature. Strelcyn mentions the Ge’ez/Amarigna names ate faris, ate fari, etse farrs, absho and abusho under the botanical names Datura stramonium, D.
fastuosa and D. metel var metel Yet, without adequate botanical
differentiation, he seems to draw some distinctions between them (2). Gelahun Abate uses the Ge’ez name este faris for Cannabis sativa, and goes on to mention the same name for D. stramonium (astenagir). He alludes to three types of este Faris (3). On the
other hand, Amare Getahun uses the most common and well-known name hashish for C. sativa and ate faris and astenagir for D. stramonium
(4). Tournerie claims that among the clergy, D. stramonium is referred to as etse
Fars (plant from Persia), and
that the name was later corrupted to attefaris
in Amarigna. She further notes that
the name astenagir may refer to a
different Datura species, or to the
ripeness of the seed. The name “abisho”
has been applied to both C. sativa
and D. stramonium. More generically,
it may also refer to a multi-component concoction. The name netch abisho has been applied to the unripe D. stramonium seeds. A mention of the plant names etse Fars and etse Faris
in the literature without context does not convey either C. sativa (hashish, marijuana) or D. stramonium [astenagir]
(5).
D.
stramonium (astenagir)
D.
stramonium is known by various English common names: Angel Tulip, Apple of
Peru, Devil’s trumpet, Green thorn-apple, Jamestown
weed, Jimson weed, Nightshade, etc. It is a cosmopolitan weed and grows wild in
most parts of Africa. It is found commonly
around village homes and on abandoned farmlands. It is an herbaceous plant that
can grow up to 1 meter high, with many branches and a dense appearance. It
produces fruits that enclose black, flat and kidney-shaped seeds (6). The plant
is a potent intoxicant. The seedlings have been accidentally mixed with
vegetables and caused catastrophic poisoning. The plant has also been used
deliberately for poisoning (1). In olden times, deliberate poisoning with
plants was more common. For example, Aggripina is said to have poisoned her
husband, the Roman Emperor Claudius, to death with poisonous mushrooms when she
learned that he was about to name a different successor to the throne rather
than her son, Nero (7).
The toxic
principles that make D. stramonium so
dangerous are the so-called tropane alkaloids hyosciamine, hyoscine
(scopolamine) and atropine. The seeds are richer in these alkaloids than the
other parts of the plant. Drying the plant doesn’t reduce the levels, nor
eliminate the toxicity of these chemicals (1). Lethal doses lead to death from
asphyxiation (lack of oxygen). The early tell-tale symptoms of poisoning are:
reddening of the skin, dryness of the mouth, pronounced dilation of the pupils
in the eyes and erratic increase in heart rate (8). In traditional medicine,
extracts of the leaves are incorporated into remedies for cough and chest
problems. The leaves and seeds are also used for inflammation to reduce pain.
The seeds have been used as an insecticide, while the leaves are crushed and
smoked as cigarettes, or burned to smoke which is inhaled for asthma (6). In East Africa, the juice from fruit has been used for aching
ear, while the leaves have been used as poultices for rheumatism and swellings
(9). Drinking tea prepared from the seeds can lead to hallucination. It is of
interest to note that the constituents of D.
stramonium plant have a place in modern medicine. For example, atropine is
used, among other indications, to increase heart rate, to dilate the pupils of
the eyes, to decrease secretions in the mouth (saliva, mucus phlegm) and for irritable
bowel syndrome. Likewise, hyosciamine is used for a number of conditions, such
as slow heart rate, bilary colic and other disorders of the digestive tract.
Scopolamine, another constituent of D.
stramonium, is used in modern medicine as a patch worn on the back of the ear
to prevent post-operative nausea and vomiting. It is also used to prevent
motion sickness.
D. stramonium (ate Faris; astenagir) is reported to occur in most
Ethiopian regions. It is also found in Eritrea,
the Sudan, Somalia and throughout tropical Africa. Also known as abisho
(vide supra) in Ethiopia, astenagir
(ate-faris) is blended into porridge
and eaten by the debtera and church
school students to purportedly open their mind and make them receptive.
Abstinence from alcohol is recommended to avoid adverse effects. The plant is
grown in gardens of many monasteries. Astenagir,
as the name implies, is also used as a “truth drug” during “afersata” hearings held by elders to
solve criminal activities (10). Although there no evidence for its
effectiveness, it is interesting to note that scopolamine (a constituent of D. stramonium) is incorporated into what
is dubbed “truth serum” which is allegedly used by law enforcement agents to
elicit information. (6). In Ethiopia,
it is used to treat crying eyes by applying the juice of the leaves. It is also
used as an ingredient to concoct multi-herb remedies used for various
complaints. It is mixed with Catha edulis
(chat), C. sativa (hashish) and other
ingredients and smoked to treat mental illnesses and for exorcism (11). Known
by the local names mazerb (in Kunama dialect) and mezerabaie (Tigrigna), D. stramonium is used for unspecified
cheek disease in northern Ethiopia.
For this purpose, the dried seeds are immersed in boiling water, and the vapor
directed at the affected part (12). In the Bale region, the leaves are crushed
and applied to treat abscess, for extraction of thorn, and to treat infected
wounds (13). Ground leaves are mixed with butter and applied to the scalp to
treat infections. The vapor from boiling seed pods is inhaled for pain and
toothache (4).
If seeds are accidentally mixed with barely
and ingested, it can cause intoxication, dry mouth and confusion (13). In 1984,
a large outbreak of food-borne toxicity among workers of the Middle Awash Agricultural
Enterprise was reported. The incident was traced back to ingestion of corn
contaminated with D. stramonium
seeds. As a result, 688 workers showed signs of toxicity, with 33 patients
requiring hospitalization. The patients had dryness of the mucous membranes,
flushed and dry skin, blurred vision, and neurological disorders. In the most
severe cases, patients experienced seizures, depression and coma. (14).
C.
sativa (hashish, marijuana)
The plant is
known by various common names: anascaha & kif, banji, bhang, hemp,
cannabis, shesha, dimba, gegga, suma, vingory, machona, bhang, sausi, charas,
ganja, hashish, erar, marijuana, marihuana, pot, gaga, grass, has, mariguana,
sinsemilla and weed. The name accorded to each preparation depends on which
plant parts are used and how they are combined. C. sativa is an annual leafy herb. The soft-textured leaves are
lance-shaped with saw blade-like indentation. The resin mixture is found in the
leaflets of the floral bracts. The plant is rank-smelling and aromatic. It can
grow to a height of six feet. At the sub-species level, there are two types of
cannabis. C. sativa subsp. sativa (so-called low-THC hemp) is
principally used as a source of fiber and seed oil, while C. sativa subsp. indica
is the intoxicant variety. The cannabis plant perhaps originated in Asia, and is now cultivated in temperate zones (15). Its
use dates back to 4,000 years. Although the Chinese were reported to have recognized
the sedative effects of C. sativa
long time ago, its widespread use as a psychoactive herb may have started only
in the past century. It has been used for a variety of medical conditions, such
as for the treatment of catarrh, leprosy, fever, dandruff, hemorrhoids,
obesity, asthma, urinary tract infections, loss of appetite, inflammation and
cough (16). Cannabis products are the most widely trafficked drug in the world,
affecting all countries (17). It has a strong potential for abuse, and hence is
classified as a Schedule I substance. Marijuana refers to the crude product
obtained from the dried leaves and flowers of C. sativa. It is typically consumed in hand-rolled cigarettes or a
water pipe, inhaled through a vaporizer, ingested in food, or applied on the
skin as a balm. The effect of inhaled marijuana is relatively fast. It provides
a feeling of pleasure, affects memory, thought, concentration and sensory and
time perception (18). It adversely affects the heart, lungs, brain, endocrine
system and the eyes. Distortion of time, distance, and visual and auditory
hallucinations have been reported with the use of marijuana (16). Although
illegal in the United States
under federal law, several states have legalized the use of medical marijuana.
These medical uses include debilitating conditions such as nausea and vomiting
resulting from cancer chemotherapy, weight loss due to HIV infection and
cancer, spasticity due to multiple sclerosis, pain syndrome and glaucoma (18).
More than 420
compounds have been reported from C.
sativa (16). Delta-9-tetrahydrcannabinonol (THC) is the hallucinogenic
constituent of marijuana. All in all, additional 60 cannabinoids are found in C. sativa (8). It also contains alkaloids,
steroidal saponins, flavonoids and a complex mixture of volatile oil compounds
(8,15,17). The concentration of THC varies from 0.1% to over 0.4%. It is higher
in the bracts and flowers than in the stems, seeds and roots (16).
Although the
Flora of Ethiopia (Volume 3) mentions that Cannabis
sativa grows in Ethiopia,
it doesn’t elaborate on the specific distribution in Ethiopia (19). There is no clear
evidence when the plant was introduced into Ethiopia. It has been speculated
that it was used around Lake Tana (Begemdir)
as far back as the 13th-14th centuries. Two ceramic pipe
bowls excavated in Lalibela
Cave were carbon dated to
1320 A.D, give or take 80 years. Analysis of the residue in the pipes indicated
the presence of cannabinoids (20). The main areas of cultivation are in Alemaya
(Eastern Harerghe), Shebedino (Sidamo), in the
Oromia Region and Debre Berhan. Shashemene is reported to be a major area for
cannabis production and export to neighboring countries. Overall, it is claimed
that Ethiopia
is not a major area cannabis production and export (17). The majority of
cannabis produced is consumed locally. According to Mesfin Kassay et al (21), C. sativa is also grown in Quara and
Metema (Gondar)
and Garamuleta (Harar). The main trafficking routes that were identified and
reported in 1999 were: 1. Shashemene-Addis Ababa, 2. Shashemene-Dessie-Alamata-Mekele-Afar-Djibuti,
3. Dire Dawa-Djibuti (via train), 4. Qara, Metema-Sudan and 5. North
Gondar-Humera-Sudan-Egypt. Although there is no current data on the extent of
cannabis use in Ethiopia,
reports in the past had indicated an upward trend. Historically, it was limited
to monasteries, where priests and deacons used it during religious education
and to keep them awake during prayers. It is speculated that the Jamaican
community who settled in Shashemene may have introduced it to that area.
Tourists and their guides may also have played a role in spreading cannabis
plant into other parts of Ethiopia.
According to police records (1993-1997), 545 of the 553 (98.6%) illicit drug
arrests were related to cannabis use or trafficking. This relatively high number
of cases has been attributed to the fact that cannabis grows locally, and that
it can be bought at low price. According to a small survey of 47 health workers
in Addis Ababa,
61.7 % of the respondents listed cannabis as a problem as compared to 10.6% for
cocaine and 6.4% for opium.
Conclusions
A
nomenclatural confusion exists in the literature on the Ethiopian vernacular
names for D. stramonium and C. sativa. Using the names astenagir for D. stramonium and hashish or etse
fars for C. sativa consistently in future literature may avoid the
confusion. In Ethiopian folk medicine, both plants are used for medicinal and
recreational purposes. Consumers of these plants for medicinal/health purposes
should notify their healthcare provider of such use. However, the use of both
plants as recreational herbs should be discouraged, due to the toxic, addictive
and other adverse health effects as demonstrated in this review.
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